Sample TOEFL Integrated Essay Online Encyclopedias

Sample TOEFL Integrated Essay Online Encyclopedias Sample TOEFL Integrated EssayThe QuestionThis integrated (Type 1) question is from from theOfficial TOEFL iBT Tests CollectionfromETS. It also appeared on one of the TPO tests (number 5, I think). It was used on a real TOEFL test in the past.Special Offer: TOEFL Essay Evaluation and ScoringYou can now sign up to have your practice essays evaluated and scored by the author of this page. This service is a great way to learn how you will do before test day and how you can best prepare for the big day. Sign up today.The Sample Essay The reading and the lecture are about communal online encyclopedias, which are unique because they can be revised and edited by anyone in the world. The author of the reading argues that they are less reliable than traditional printed encyclopedias. The professor casts doubt on each of the criticisms made by the author. To begin with, the author notes that such encyclopedias are edited by individuals without academic credentials. He feels that this me ans their contributions are sometimes inaccurate or ill-informed. The professor challenges this point. He asserts that even traditional encyclopedias are not perfectly accurate. Moreover, he says that when errors creep into printed books, they remain there for years, unlike in online sources where they can be quickly corrected. Secondly, the author claims that vandals and hackers have opportunities to include false information in online encyclopedias, or to corrupt and vandalize correct information. He feels that unsuspecting users have no way of detecting when this has occurred. The professor casts doubt on these claims. He draws attention to the fact that the administrators of online encyclopedias have methods of protecting their content. He says that they have special editors who watch all changes and revert those which are obviously malicious. Finally, the author points out that communal reference works tend to focus on topics which are trivial or unimportant. This can c reate a false impression of which topics are important and which are not. The lecturer, in contrast, says that because online encyclopedias have unlimited space they are free to cover a wide variety of topics. He argues that just because a considerable number of articles are written about popular topics, we should not assume that academic topics are not being represented.NoteThis is a sample TOEFL integrated essay written by a native speaker. It follows our master guide for TOEFL integrated essays. If you find it useful, please remember that we have many more sample essaysfor you to read!

Washington Newburgh Conspiracy Speech Analysis - 2012 Words

Running Head: WASHINGTON Washington Newburgh Conspiracy Speech English 115, Section 12 March 6, 2006 Washington Newburgh Conspiracy Speech His mind was great and powerful, without being of the very first order; his penetration strong . . . Perhaps the strongest feature in his character was prudence, never acting until every circumstance, every consideration, was maturely weighed; refraining if he saw a doubt, but, when once decided, going through with his purpose, whatever obstacles opposed. (Thomas Jefferson, as cited in George Washington, 2006, para.19) George Washington is one of the most recognized and famous leaders in all history of the United States of America. He contributed greatly to the establishment of this†¦show more content†¦He wants them to feel like he is proud of them, he not only understands, but respects them, and at the same time, he wants them to feel that he is one of them. He emphasizes and reinforces these strong emotional ties by going on to say that he has taken pride in them when they have been complimented, and has become annoyed, upset, in fact righteously angry when people have spoken poorly of or criticized them. Then he drives his point home in suggesting the absurdity in anyone assuming that he would be unconcerned with the nature of the problem at hand; in doing so, Washington solidified his position as a caring and justifiable leader of these men, suggesting that he has their best interests at the forefront of his mind, especially in times of particularly grueling and, or frustrating trials. One of Washington s many strengths as far as speaking skills are concerned was his choice and usage of diction. He was a powerful speaker who employed influential and authoritative words in his cause as a means of persuasion. When a speaker can intelligently convey his message to others, it surely validates his argument, but Washington spoke with much more than intelligence. Washington was respected, admired, and distinguished, qualities which provided his appeals to the men with legitimacy and conviction. His words were elegant , flowing and emotionally effective, striking particularly areas of sensitivity in the hearts

Causes And Consequences Of Cancer Essay - 2258 Words

Cancer is a group of over 100 diseases involving uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the body with very high potential to spread to other body parts. Untreated cancers can cause serious illness and may lead to the death of the individual. In humans, over two hundred different forms of cancers have been identified, affecting more than sixty organs and claiming millions of lives worldwide.1 In the modern era, cancer is one of the major public health problems worldwide. Based on the GOBOCAN report, about 14.1 million new cancer cases and 8.2 million deaths occurred worldwide in 2012.2 It is one of the deadliest diseases and continues to be on the list of top five diseases with highest mortality rate. According to the American Cancer Society, in the United States 1,658,370 new cancer cases are expected to be diagnosed, out of which 589,430 patients are expected to lose their battle against cancer in 2015.3 Currently, cancer is the second most common cause of death in the US after he art diseases, causing the deaths of about 1,620 people per day and is expected to become number one within next few years.4 The significant increase in a number of cancer patients every year has propelled the interest of scientists to hunt for novel therapies to treat cancer. As a result, many new advances have been made over the last two decades towards the diagnosis and treatment of this deadly disease.5-11 1.2 Cancer and Immune System Traditional treatment for cancer includes surgery,Show MoreRelatedCauses And Consequences Of Lung Cancer1781 Words   |  8 PagesLung Cancer? Blood Cancer? Bronchitis? COPD? All these familiar and terrifying words have one root in common- Smoking. 9 out of 10 smokers’ first smoke is at the age of 18 and 99% try it by the age of 26(Centre for Disease Control and Prevention). Each day about 4000 youths tries cigarettes for the first time (Haugen,2004). Even after being aware of the ill effects of the so-called ‘cool thing’, smokers cannot stop themselves after their first smoke. Teenage smoking had declined steadily from 1990Read MoreCauses And Consequences Of Lung Cancer Essay2203 Words   |  9 PagesLung cancer has increased within the past decade; one of the biggest reasons is that more and more people smoke now than they have in the past. Smoking causes damage not only in the lungs, but also in the body, lips, or inside the mouth. Even though smoking does harm your body there are some good things that come from smoking. Such as it can lower the risk of obesity, and knee replacement surgery. There is different types of lung cancer one for smoking and the other, nonsmoking. Although peopleRead MoreTobacco And Its Effect On The Body908 Words   |  4 Pagesuse it for a different purpose. It is said that 9 out of 10 people begin smoking before the age of 18 without knowing the consequences in the near future. For the reason of this epidemic, it is important to know that tobacco use affects the body in many different ways that include difficulty in vision, poor health, different cancers and problems with pregnancy. Smoking can cause harm in different places of our eyes. One of the most common risks that smokers pick up would be cataracts. Cataracts areRead MoreThe Mortality Rate From Cancer1155 Words   |  5 Pagesmortality rate from cancer has been declining, specifically the number of deaths per 100 00 people. There are several reason provided for such statistics, one of them being the advancement of new science. The health industries are finding methods to detect signs of cancer early on, to provide better chances of treating it and to keep a patient alive. Additionally, the numbers of lung cancer in both men and women are decreasing because the awareness and consequences of cancer-causing agents, suchRead MoreEssay on The Consequences of Tobacco1042 Words   |  5 Pagesindeed tobacco has consequences. In fact tobacco is one of the most leading causes of death in the world today. Smoking has begun to take over our everyday life. It is the number one most leading cause of death in the wo rld today, and also the number one substance smoked or chewed today. But what people do not realize is that there are consequences to smoking tobacco, or eating it. Tobacco is hazardous to the human body system, therefore it should be banned due to the fact that it causes serious problemsRead MoreSmoking While Pregnancy Essay1332 Words   |  6 Pagesaverage are more likely to cause harm to their unborn child than women who do not smoke over the course of their pregnancies. Smoking during pregnancy can have negative consequences for the baby. The negative consequences can include a variety of issues ranging from serious health problems to birth defects. It is a proven fact that smoking cigarettes while pregnant can cause the baby to be born with underdeveloped organs. Smoking cigarettes can also cause different types of cancer for both the mother andRead More The Long Term Effects of Marijuana Essay1207 Words   |  5 Pagesmarijuana) affects the brain. It is very difficult to co nduct research in this area, as it is not acceptable to harm humans by doing trials with damaging substances such as marijuana. However, there is accumulating evidence of the psychological consequences of using marijuana. Many chronic marijuana smokers have a psychosis that is now medically deemed as, â€Å"A-motivational Syndrome† (Chopra 38). A psychosis is a condition where a person experiences some loss of contact with reality. A person with aRead MoreThe Dangers of Smokeless Tobacco Essay1288 Words   |  6 Pageshaving to inhale the smoke of cigarettes, so it is not surprising why they’re so popular. Most users are unaware of it, but these products can be just as unsafe, if not even more dangerous, than cigarettes in an abundance of ways. This misunderstanding causes many uneducated individuals to be persuaded into the life of obsessive dipping and chewing, practically committing a slow but fatal suicide. Obviously, something drastic must be done to solve this problem, and the answer is quite simple: raise awarenessRead MoreThe Effects of Smoking Essay1501 Words   |  7 Pagesfact, over 75,000 reports have examined the connection between cigarette smoking and its effects (U.S. DHHS Reducing Health). A Report to the Surgeon General has stated that It is safe to say that smoking represents the most extensively documented cause of disease ever investigated in the history of biomedical research (U.S. DHHS The Health). And a 1988 Report to the Surgeon General stated that nicotine (the drug found in tobacco) is as addictive as heroin and cocaine (American Lung AssociationRead MoreThe Harmful Effects Of Smoking And Smoking1380 Words   |  6 Pagestime they light a smoke. Some of the harmful effects of smoking include various potentially lethal diseases to the smoker and others exposed to secondhand smoke, the sinful addiction caused by a key ingredient in cigarettes, and social issues sm oking causes for smokers and their loved ones. Smoking should be prohibited completely because of the harmful physical and social effects it has on smokers and the non-smokers they associate with. First of all, smoking creates a number of health problems for smokers

Imperialism in Africa Free Essays

string(74) " economic policies and the social structure in England’ \(Ashton, 1969\." Explain what is meant by the term imperialism. Discuss the causes of imperialism in the 1800s. Kamar Findlay ID# 092165839 Mico University College Imperialism in Africa Mrs. We will write a custom essay sample on Imperialism in Africa or any similar topic only for you Order Now Pitter October 29, 2011 Imperialism is â€Å"the creation and or maintenance of an unequal economic, cultural, and territorial relationship, usually between states and often in the form of an empire, based on domination and subordination† (Johnston, 2000. p. 375). In its simplest form Farah and Karls (2001) describes imperialism as one country’s domination of the political, economical and social life of another country. The Europeans imperialism during the 1800s occurs out of the advantages of strong economies, well organized governments and powerful armies and navies. ‘Superior technology including riverboats and telegraph, as well as improved medical knowledge also played a part’ (Esler et al 2009. p. 752). Advances such as the Maxim Machines Guns and steam driven warships were very strong signals in persuading the Africans and Asian to accept European domination. European imperialism did not begin in the 1800s. European states have had empires in the Americas after 1492 and in South Asia and China. Imperialism has been found in the histories of Japan, the Assyrian Empire, the Chinese Empire, the Roman Empire, Greece, the Persian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire, ancient Egypt, and India and was a basic component in the conquest of weaker state. According to Smith (1998) the word itself, derived from the Latin verb imperare (to command), the Roman concept of imperium, while the actual term ‘Imperialism’ was coined in the 16th century, reflecting what are now seen as the imperial policies of Belgium, Britain, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Imperialism not only describes colonial and territorial policies, but also economic and/or military dominance and influence. From about 1870 to 1914, imperialist gain control over much of the world. Leading the way were the soldiers, merchants, settlers, missionaries, and explorers. In Europe, imperial expansion found favor with all classes, from bankers and manufacturers to workers. Western imperialism expanded rapidly for a number of reasons. The imperialism in the 1800s resulted from four key factors. First, nationalism created an atmosphere in which rival European countries build empires in their competitive quest for dominance in Europe and indeed the world. Secondly, the Industrial revolution created an extraordinary demand for raw material and new markets, which in essence push industrialized nations to seek over sea territories. Thirdly imperialism rested on the notion of what was called the â€Å"White Mans Burden†. This was a belief that was held by the European powers that it was their responsibility to civilize the people who the belief was pagans. Farah and Karls (2001) lamented that humanitarian impulses inspired many individuals to leave their secure lives at home and head for distant colonies. The desire was to spread western technology, religion, custom and tradition to those how were seen as the uncivilized. Finally, according to Ellis and Esler (2009) behind the idea of western civilizing mission was the growing since of racial superiority. European races, the lamented, were believed to be superior to all others and domination of the weaker races was simply nature’s way of improving the human species. Nationalism played a vital role in the drive towards imperialism. ‘Nationalism is a political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in national terms’ (Athena, 2001. p. 226) . It is also seen as the belief that a nation will benefit from acting independently rather than collectively, emphasizing national rather than international goals Ellis et al (2009) lamented that western leaders claimed that colonies were needed for national security. In the last half of the 1800s European nations visualize them self as the ideal country. If Great Britain started a small colony in distant or Africa, France had to start one too-and so did Belgium, Germany, Italy, Holland, Spain, Portugal and Russia. Nationalism in the extreme promotes the idea of national superiority. Industrialized countries therefore felt they had the right to take control of weaker areas. Countries also tried to increase their power through the control of more land and people. In the 1800s Europe underwent a renewed period of imperialism which was very sophisticated in its nature. Much emphasis was placed on gaining or controlling a colony. The resources and wealth gain from the colony was used to finance war and the army as well as the economy. The stronger a European military gets the more power full that country become in Europe and as such gaining the wealth from a colony could either break or build the power and prestige of a nation. When France for example, moved into West Africa, rival nations such as Britain and Germany seized lands nearby to halt further French expansion. In essence the Europeans taught of the colonies as a source of security. So strong and sophisticated was the sentiment of nationalism that it set of what was known as a ‘Scramble for Africa. West Africa was already known to the European but the interior was untouched. The Belgian king Leopold the second occupies and carry profitable economic activities in the Congo (South Central Africa). Before long Britain, France, Germany and Italy were all lock in a tussle, pressing rivals claim to the region. According to Bickers and Henriot (2000), the scramble was turning out to be bloodshed between European powers. However this was somehow prevented with the calling of the Berlin Conference in Germany by the German Statesman Otto Von Bismarck. This conference was design to reach a peace full agreement over the partition of Africa, but it reflect the ideals of imperialism as only the European powers were invited to the meeting and yet still it was the land of the Africans they were dividing among themselves. The Industrial Revolution of the 1800s knew no borders. The era known as the Industrial Revolution was a period in which fundamental changes occurred in agriculture, textile and metal manufacture, transportation, economic policies and the social structure in England’ (Ashton, 1969. You read "Imperialism in Africa" in category "Papers" p. 24). Advances in agricultural techniques and practices resulted in an increased supply of food and raw materials, changes in industrial organization and new technology resulted in increased production, efficiency and profits, and the increase in commerce, foreign and domestic, were all conditions which promoted the advent of the Industrial Revolution. ‘The industrial revolution was the most compelling driving force behind imperialism in the 1800s’ (Thompson, 1964. p. 147). The newly build machineries and factory in Europe and the united state utilizes tons of raw resources and produces a tremendous amount of manufactured goods. Europe alone could not provide the raw material and the bulk the recourses needed for manufacturing would have to come from outside of Europe. On the same note the European market was becoming overwhelmed with producers and a new market was also needed for the selling of the manufacture goods. As such, face with the desire for well needed raw materials and new markets, the industrialize countries of Europe set out on a quest for new colonies in order to facilitate the needs of their new industrialize cities. Fascinatingly the areas such as East Asia, Africa and the Americas were scarcely known to the Europeans. However the little they know about areas was compelling enough to indicate that these regions amass a huge amount of resources. Thus it is not surprising that these regions would become the safe haven for European exploit of raw material and markets. According Ellis (2009) the industrial revolution started with the textile industry in Britain and the amount of textile produce was dependent on the availability of cotton. Cotton was grown in huge amount in the regions of North Africa particularly the ancient civilization of Egypt. Cotton was also grown in excessive amount in India and because of this supply it came with little or no surprise that the British would seize the opportunity to colonize and bring these areas under their control. In great demand was raw material such as gold, copper, Rubber, diamond, silver, ivory, steel, Coal, Petroleum. Most of these resources if not all could be found in Africa and areas in the Middle East (Near East). As such these areas became the catalyst of European exploiting and economic activities. The economic demands of the industrial revolution were one of the reasons why these areas with the abundance of resources succumbed to the burden brought by the European imperials ideals. Europeans also ventured on a path to civilized (Civilizing Mission) the people who they themselves claim as uncivilized. The ‘civilizing mission’ as it was term was notably the underlying principle of French and Portuguese  colonial rule  in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Kuper (1965) lament that it was influential in the French colonies of  Algeria,  French West Africa, and Indochina, and in the Portuguese colonies of Angola, Guinea, Mozambique and Timor . The European colonial powers felt it was their duty to bring  Western Civilization  to what they perceived as backwards peoples. Rather than merely govern colonial peoples, the Europeans would attempt to westernize them in accordance with a colonial ideology known as â€Å"assimilation†. Those who did not practice the Christian faith were seen as pagans and as such it was the ‘white man burden’ (Europeans) to save these people by Christianizing them. According to Esler (2009) during the age of imperialism, growing numbers of catholic and protestant missionaries decided to bring the Christian message to the most remote parts of Africa and Asia. Like many other Europeans and Americans of this period, these missionaries believed that Christianity and Western Civilization together could benefit and transform the world. Educating the people into western education was just another aspect of European conquest as even the education itself was design in such a way to prevent the people from the colonies to accept their own traditions and culture. To achieve these goal missionaries usually set up churches schools and hospitals as well. Esler (2009) explained that some Europeans seized on the theory of Social Darwinism as a proof of their cultural and racial superiority. ‘Social Darwinism’ is a belief, popular in the late Victorian age in England, and America which states that the strongest or fittest should survive and flourish in society while the weak and unfit should be allowed to die’ ( Hawkins, 1997. p. 457). The European adopted this theory and truly put it into effect as one of their reason for conquest and imperial rule was because they saw themselves as the dominant race with the god given right to rule. European during the 1800s and the earlier half of the 1900s view the non-white race of Africa and Asia as barbaric and uncivilized or somewhat a lesser species of the human race. Because of these descriptions the European held it in their view that this race should be control and dominated by the superior race which of course was the Europeans. European domination led to erosion of traditional African and Asian values and destroyed many existing social relationships. Native peoples were forced to work long hard hours for subsistence pay. In an attempt to come to a conclusion, the research done have shown that imperialism in the 1800s was cause out of four key factors. These were the Industrial Revolution, Nationalism, religion and racial superiority. The economic demands of the industrial revolution had a profound impact on European economy and the colonies the governed. The more resources came from he colonies the wealthier and more power full the mother country became. In their quest was also to civilized the people of the colonies who the thought were barbaric. As such schools and church alike was established within the colonies. Imperialism was also driven on the basis of racial superiority. The Europeans held the view that they were superior to the colonies over which they dominated. Africa and Asia were the continents that succumb to the imperialist ideals of the 1800s. They were a region with a lot of resources and wealth which was needed to foster economic growth n Europe. Reference Athena,L (2001). Encyclopedia of Nationalism. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers Ashton, T. S. (1969) The Industrial Revolution. London: Oxford University Press Chambers, J. D. The Workshop of the World. London: Oxford University Press, 1968. Esler, A and Ellis, E (2009) World History. USA: Prentice Hall Farah, A and Karls, A. B (2001) World history: the human experience. USA: McGraw Hill Hawkins, M (1997). Social Darwinism in European and American Thought 1860-1945: Nature and Model and Nature as Threat. London: Cambridge University Press Johnston, Ronald John (2000). The Dictionary of Human Geography (4th ed. ). USA: Wiley-Blackwell Kuper H,(1965) Urbanization and Migration in West Africa . California: Mayfield Publishers Company Bicker,R and Henriot,C (2000) New Frontiers: Imperialism’s New Communities in East Asia, 1842–1953. Manchester: Manchester University Press Simon C. Smith, (1998) British Imperialism 1750–1970, Cambridge University Press Thompson, E. P. (1964) The Making of the English Working Class. New York: Pantheon How to cite Imperialism in Africa, Papers

Noah Claypole Essays - English-language Films, Noah, Noach

Noah Claypole The Characterization of Noah Claypole The process of characterization is that which every author uses to make, build, or create a character. In Oliver Twist, the characterization of Noah Claypole, is carried out in three ways: the author has the character say things that tell the reader what sort of a person he is, do things that reveal his personality, and the author also has the storyteller describe Noah to expose things concerning his nature. His dialogue characterizes Noah. A young man, Noah does not speak to his lady kindly at all. He is very criticizing, ?Oh, there yer are, resting again!?(Davies). The tone of his speech is intolerant, mocking, and aggressive all at the same time. His violent nature is revealed when he threatens to kick his companion. A gentleman would never do such a thing to a lady. The use of slang words in his dialogue reflects his social background. Furthermore, he refers to his lady as a ?fool?. This is exceedingly discourteous of him. Noah is further characterized by what he does. Noah does not respect his companion at all. He does not even walk beside her. He does not feel guilty for making his lady carry a much heavier luggage. Worst of all, he paces in advance and occasionally turns to her with an impatient jerk of the head. He is a bad-tempered man whose nose grows redder as he gets mad. He cannot tolerate the fact that his lady does not urge herself to greater exertion just because she is tired. Noah is also characterized by the narrator's descriptions. The narrator mostly referred to Noah as Mr. Claypole. This affords the writer the opportunity for considerably harsh comments. The contrast of the luggage sizes mentioned allows the reader to assume Noah as a thoughtless man. There is irony in the way Davies describes Noah and his lady. Davies mentions how Noah wanted to save himself, if there were going to be any arresting, but he did not care for his companion. At the end of the same paragraph, Davies writes, ?Of course, he entered at this juncture into no explanation of his motives, and they walked on very lovingly together?(Davies). The narrator's descriptions also set a mood, which will elicit an active response from the reader. Davies characterizes Noah Claypole by his dialogues, his actions, and the narrator's descriptions. English Essays

buy custom Dying Patient essay

buy custom Dying Patient essay The purpose of this paper was to report on an interview conducted with an oncology nurse and a clergy representative. Both of the nurse and the clergy representative were interviewed since they work in a facility providing care for dying patients. The objective of the exercise was to establish the particular approach adopted by the facility in working with dying patients and how that approach is relevant to the 21st Century needs of dying patients. The question reported on in the essay and the attached as an appendix reveal a genuine interest in understanding how these two specialists provide their continued services in hospice care. According to the oncology nurse interviewed, most of the patients admitted in the facility have already undergone confirmed laboratory tests whose results show that the person is suffering from a progressive medical condition that will soon or later result in death. According to the nurse, the facility scrutinizes each patient to ensure that they can fully provide the specific needs of the patient. There are some conditions like dementia, which demands very specialized care. The facility must therefore ascertain their ability to provide adequate care for the patients condition. Most of the patients admitted are those whose care givers at home have been overwhelmed or unqualified to give, especially in the very last stages of the dying process. The primary needs of a dying patient are physical, spiritual and emotional. At the time when the patient's health can no longer be controlled, treatment for the condition usually stops and that is when hospice care becomes most necessary. The hospice care focuses mainly on making a patient comfortable in the last days alive by giving medications and treatments that control severe symptoms like pain, constipation, short breath, nausea etc. The idea is to remove the overbearing strain of an impending death and the stress that accompanies such disclosure with psychological assistance, physical treatments and spiritual nourishment. The nurse and the clergy representative concurred in the fact that a dying patient needs comfort, information of his or her health status, encouragement to bear the sad outcome with acceptance and a positive mind and the guidance in making vital decisions before he or she dies. According to the clergy representative, the spiritual care of the patient are the most important and usually the key to eliminate stress and desperation of the patient. Buy custom Dying Patient essay

Sima de los Huesos, a Key to Human Evolution

Sima de los Huesos, a Key to Human Evolution The Sima de los Huesos (Pit of Bones in Spanish and typically abbreviated as SH) is a lower Paleolithic site, one of several important sections of the Cueva Mayor-Cueva del Silo cave system of the Sierra de Atapuerca in north-central Spain. With a total of at least 28 individual hominid fossils now firmly dated to 430,000 years old, SH is the largest and oldest collection of human remains yet discovered. Site Context The bone pit at Sima de los Huesos is at the bottom of the cave, beneath an abrupt vertical shaft measuring between 2-4 meters (6.5-13 feet) in diameter, and located about .5 kilometers (~1/3 of a mile) in from the Cueva Mayor entrance. That shaft extends downward approximately 13 m (42.5 ft), ending just above the Rampa (Ramp), a 9 m (30 ft) long linear chamber inclined about 32 degrees. At the foot of that ramp is deposit called the Sima de los Huesos, a smoothly oblong chamber measuring 8x4 m (26x13 ft) with irregular ceiling heights between 1-2 m (3-6.5 ft). In the roof of the eastern side of the SH chamber is another vertical shaft, which extends upwards some 5 m (16 ft) to where it is blocked by cave collapse. Human and Animal Bones The sites archaeological deposits include a bone-bearing breccia, mixed with many large fallen blocks of limestone and mud deposits. The bones are mainly composed of at least 166 Middle Pleistocene cave bears (Ursus deningeri) and at least 28 individual humans, represented by more than 6,500 bone fragments including over 500 teeth alone. Other identified animals in the pit include extinct forms of Panthera leo (lion), Felis silvestris (wildcat), Canis lupus (grey wolf), Vulpes vulpes (red fox), and Lynx pardina splaea (Pardel lynx). Relatively few of the animal and human bones are articulated; some of the bones have tooth marks from where carnivores have chewed on them. The current interpretation of how the site came to be is that all the animals and humans fell into the pit from a higher chamber and were trapped and unable to get out. The stratigraphy and layout of the bone deposit suggest  the humans were somehow deposited in the cave before the bears and other carnivores. It is also possible- given the large amount of mud in the pit- that all the bones arrived in this low place in the cave through a series of mudflows. A third and quite controversial hypothesis is that the accumulation of human remains might be the result of mortuary practices (see the discussion of Carbonell and Mosquera below). The Humans A central question for the SH site has been and continues to be who were they? Were they Neanderthal, Denisovan, Early Modern Human, some mixture we havent yet recognized? With the fossil remains of 28 individuals who all lived and died about 430,000 years ago, the SH site has the potential to teach us a great deal about human evolution and how these three populations intersected in the past. Comparisons of nine human skulls and numerous cranial fragments representing at least 13 individuals were first reported in 1997 (Arsuaga et a.). A large variety in cranial capacity and other characteristics were detailed in the publications, but in 1997, the site was thought to be about 300,000 years old, and these scholars concluded that the Sima de los Huesos population was evolutionarily related to Neanderthals as a sister group, and could best fit into the then-refined species of Homo heidelbergensis. That theory was supported by results from a somewhat controversial method redating the site to 530,000 years ago (Bischoff and colleagues, see details below). But in 2012, paleontologist Chris Stringer argued that the 530,000-year-old dates were too old, and, based on morphological attributes, the SH fossils represented an archaic form of Neanderthal, rather than H. heidelbergensis. The latest data (Arsuago et al 2014) answers some of Stringers hesitations. Mitochondrial DNA at SH Research on the cave bear bones reported by Dabney and colleagues revealed that, astonishingly, mitochondrial DNA had been preserved at the site, much older than any other found to date anywhere. Additional investigations on the human remains from SH reported by Meyer and colleagues  redated the site to closer to 400,000 years ago. These studies also supply the surprising notion that the SH population shares some DNA with the  Denisovans, rather than the Neanderthals they look like (and, of course, we dont really know what a Denisovan looks like yet). Arsuaga and colleagues reported a study of 17 complete skulls from SH, agreeing with Stringer that, because of numerous Neanderthal-like characteristics of the crania and mandibles, the population does not fit the  H. heidelbergensis  classification. But the population is, according to the authors, significantly different from other groups such as those at Ceprano and  Arago  caves, and from other Neanderthals, and Arsuaga and colleagues now argue that a separate taxon should be considered for the SH fossils. Sima de los Huesos is now dated to 430,000 years ago, and that places it close to the age predicted for when the split in hominid species creating the Neanderthal and Denisovan lineages occurred. The SH fossils are thus central to the investigations concerning how that might have happened, and what our evolutionary history might be. Sima de los Huesos, a Purposeful Burial Mortality profiles (Bermudez de Castro and colleagues) of the SH population show a high representation of adolescents and prime-age adults  and a low percentage of adults between 20 and 40 years of age. Only one individual was under 10 at the time of death, and none were over 40-45 years old. Thats confusing, because, while 50% of the bones were gnaw-marked, they were in fairly good condition: statistically, say the scholars, there should be more children. Carbonell and Mosquera (2006) argued that Sima de los Huesos represents a purposeful burial, based partly on the recovery of a single quartzite  Acheulean handaxe  (Mode 2) and the complete lack of lithic waste or other habitation waste at all. If they are correct, and they are currently in the minority, Sima de los Huesos would be the earliest example of purposeful human burials known to date, by ~200,000 years or so. Evidence suggesting that at least one of the individuals in the pit died as a result of interpersonal violence was reported in 2015 (Sala et al. 2015). Cranium 17 has multiple impact fractures which occurred near the moment of death, and scholars believe this individual was dead at the time s/he was dropped into the shaft. Sala et al. argue that placing cadavers into the pit was indeed a social practice of the community.   Dating Sima de lost Huesos Uranium-series and Electron Spin Resonance dating of the human fossils reported in 1997 indicated a minimum age of about 200,000 and a probable age of greater than 300,000 years ago, which roughly matched the age of the mammals. In 2007, Bischoff and colleagues reported that a high-precision thermal-ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) analysis defines the minimum of deposits age as 530,000 years ago. This date led researchers to postulate that the SH hominids were at the beginning of the  Neanderthal  evolutionary lineage, rather than a contemporary, related sister group. However, in 2012, paleontologist Chris Stringer argued that, based on morphological attributes, the SH fossils represent an archaic form of Neanderthal, rather than  H. heidelbergensis, and that the 530,000-year-old date is too old. In 2014, excavators Arsuaga et al reported new dates from a suite of different dating techniques, including Uranium series (U-series) dating of speleothems, thermally transferred  optically stimulated luminescence  (TT-OSL) and post-infrared stimulated luminescence (pIR-IR) dating of sedimentary quartz and feldspar grains, electron spin resonance (ESR) dating of sedimentary quartz, combined ESR/U-series dating of fossil teeth, paleomagnetic analysis of sediments, and biostratigraphy. Dates from most of these techniques clustered around 430,000 years ago. Archaeology The first human fossils were discovered in 1976, by T. Torres, and the first excavations within this unit were conducted by the Sierra de Atapuerca Pleistocene site group under the direction of E. Aguirre. In 1990, this program was undertaken by J. L. Arsuaga, J. M. Bermudez de Castro, and E. Carbonell. Sources Arsuaga JL, Martà ­nez I, Gracia A, Carretero JM, Lorenzo C, Garcà ­a N, and Ortega AI. 1997.  Sima de los Huesos (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain). The site.  Journal of Human Evolution  33(2–3):109-127. Arsuaga JL, Martà ­nez, Gracia A, and Lorenzo C. 1997a.  The Sima de los Huesos crania (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain). A comparative study.  Journal of Human Evolution  33(2–3):219-281. 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